Aligarh Journal of Linguistics

ISSN: 2249-1511

ALIGARH JOURNAL OF LINGUISTICS                                                                                              Volume No. 14, 2024-2025

EDITORIAL

I am very delighted to bring before you the current volume of Aligarh Journal of Linguistics (AJL14), yet again in time. Linguistics as a discipline is constantly expanding his scope and domain. In this sense, this volume is very rich and special as it has papers covering diverse areas of linguistics from scholars across the globe. In this volume, there are eleven papers including the two under notes and discussion.

The first paper by John Baugh draws our attention to linguistic profiling.Through a discussion ofthe death-defying linguistic declarations of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr Martin Luther King and Nelson Mandela, Baugh shows how linguistic weaponization had helped in combating inequality and oppression at different point of time in different parts of the word. He also draws our attention towards the beneficial impact of AI in every domain of life on a global scale. However, he also cautions us about the perils of misuse of AI and urges linguists to play a proactive role for betterment of human condition. The second paper by Kasia M. Jaszczolt delves on the properties of the human concept of ‘time’. Jaszczolt blends ‘linguistic time’, ‘epistemological time’ and ‘metaphysical time’ to highlight the semantic properties of temporal markers in tensed and tenseless languages. She shows that at the universal semantic (modal) building blocks, ‘time’ isprimarily ‘static’ and flows on the level of their language and culture-specific combinations which yields complex temporal concepts. By developing aformal approach of Default Discourse Semantics, Jaszczolt presents contextualist-semantic representations of temporal reference. The third paper by B. N. Patnaik reviews the study of Linguistics in India Universities. He points out the various weaknesses in the curriculum of the study ofLinguistics as a discipline. The focus remains primary on the ‘structure of language’ rather than on the ‘use of language’. He suggests that various new areas of linguistics like cognitive linguistics, computational linguistics and others should be introduced in the curriculum. He also asserts how the Indian languages departments have largely ignored in their curriculum, the insights which they could have drawn from Critical Sociolinguistics, Discourse Analysis and Stylistics. He exhorts the linguistic community to create awareness about the relevance of linguistics and its applications in our life. The fourth paper byReetomBorkotoky and Gautam. K. Baruah discusses the ‘motion events’ in Assamese, an Indo-Aryan Language from a Cognitive Linguistic perspective. Based on Pantcheva’s (2011) typology of paths, this paper examines the semantics and grammar of three canonical path types, viz. Goal path, Source path and Route path in Assamese post positions used in oblique phrases in them. The study shows the polysemy reflected in the Goal path. Utilizing Croft’s (2012) two-dimensional geometrical model, Borkotoky and Baruah schematically present all the path types found in Assamese. The fifth paper by Rashid Guleed traces the antiquity of Somali language in Africa by presenting a description of the linguistic structure of the language. Guleed tries to connect Somali language to Adam and argues that it can be used for understanding language genesis and human prehistory. The sixth paper by Shabana Hameed and MehvishMohsin is on the phonological analysis of Lucknow Urdu based on the theoretical constructs of Columbia School of Linguistics (CSL).They show phonological skewing in monosyllabic words and try to account for it using the five orienting principles of CSL, namely, physiological mechanism, human behaviour, communication, acoustic medium and vision. The seventh paper bySadia H. Hasan explores how Urdu/Hindi-speaking children (native speakers of Hindustani rather than Persianized Urdu) perceive sentences in the passive voice. It aims to determine the extent to which Urdu/Hindi-speaking children accurately comprehend passive voice sentences in Urdu/Hindi. The eighth paper by Jitendra Vasava and Nishaant Choksi sheds light on the synergic relationship between NoiriBhils and their ecology through the documentation of birds. They describe how the NoiraBhils name the birds andinterpret their calls, and behaviour, thereby indexing the social role ofbirds in their society. The ninth paper byNazrin B. Laskar explores the morpho-syntactic features of nominal categories in Bishnupriya Manipuri, a lesser known contact language spoken in the northeastern part of India. Bishnupriya Manipuri reflects properties of both Eastern Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman to which it owes its origin. These shared properties in Bishnupriya Manipuri represent a complex amalgam. In addition, Bishnupriya Manipuri shows many properties that seem to be the result of internal developments and innovations.

The tenth paper by Noman Tahir & M J Warsi provides a concise overview of the morpho-syntactic distinctions between Kakrala-Urdu and standard Urdu. Kakrala-Urdu, a unique linguistic variety spoken in Kakrala, Uttar Pradesh, is analyzed in terms of its pronoun system, agreement patterns, case marking, and auxiliary usage, emphasizing its differences from standard Urdu.The last paper by KothakondaSuman examines various types of null subjects in Tulu. Tulu seems to belong to theconsistent null subject languages based on the diagnostic features proposed by Holmberg and Roberts (2010). The paper shows how agreement and all other factors help in identifying the subject. It is also mentioned how null subject operate with modal verbs without agreement.

Two papers are included in the ‘Notes and Discussion’ section. The first paper by Vibha Sharma deliberates on the evolution of Urdu and sails through the journey of Urdu in post-colonial India. She reflects on the resilience and quest of Urdu amidst the politicization and marginalization in post-partition India. The second paper by Murad Ahamad Khan discusses the challenges and strategies in teaching Spanish in India. He also explains how the structural differences between the languages of India and Spanish creates barriers in the learning process. This volume ends with a book review by M. J. Warsi.

I believe that you will find this volume insightful and having rich content that will pave the way for further research in linguistic studies. AJL serves as a leading source of novel ideas in contemporary linguistics emerging from this region.

I take this opportunity to thank the reviewers for their timely feedback. I acknowledge the efforts, dedication and hard work of our editors Masood Ali Beg and Nazrin B. Laskar and others involved in type-setting, formatting and other aspects of publication.

25.11.2024                                                                                                                                                                                M J Warsi

                                                                                                                                                                                                 Editor-in-Chief

Author(s): John Baugh

Keywords: Artificial intelligence, protective guardrails, linguistic scaffolding, human condition

Abstract:The scientific study of human language has evolved with innovative utilization of emerging technologies that have witnessed methodological advances that have culminated in expansive utilization of Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI relies heavily on an intricate linguistic infrastructure that is not visible to users who gain access to powerful new tools that have been used for benevolent and malevolent purposes. Linguists throughout the world are uniquely situated to offer guidance to AI users that have the potential to amplify its favorable utility while simultaneously erecting protective guardrails to reduce nefarious AI activity. The linguistic societies of India and America have the potential to offer leadership that increases the likelihood of positive AI applications while deflecting harmful AI consequences. Nearly every tool created for beneficial purposes has also been used to do harm. Because AI tools rely heavily on linguistic scaffolding, attentive linguists can help to ensure that our science minimizes harmful AI effects. As is the case for most other tools, AI shows tremendous promise that has the potential to enhance the human condition globally.

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Author(s): Kasia M. Jaszczolt

Keywords: human time, linguistic time, epistemological time, metaphysical time, default semantics

Abstract: There is no doubt that cross-linguistic investigations into temporal reference inform psychologists about the properties of the human concept of time. But it is not common to go further: from linguistic externalisations of the human concept of time to the properties of ‘real’ time as it is discussed in philosophy of physics. In this talk I combine what I call ‘linguistic time’ (timeL), ‘epistemological time’ (timeE) and ‘metaphysical time’ (timeM) to show that an insight into semantic properties of markers of temporality in various, tensed and tenseless, natural languages helps explain the apparent conflict between the dynamic, flowing timeE and static timeM – ‘real’ time that does not flow but instead consists of relations of static precedence and succession (on the so-called ‘B theory’, McTaggart 1908). I present some arguments for the modal foundations of the human concept of time (time as supervenient on epistemic modality, Jaszczolt, e.g. 2009, 2020, 2023) and conclude that on the level of universal semantic (modal) building blocks, timeE is essentially static – it only flows on the level of their language- and culture-specific combinations that produce complex temporal concepts. I conclude by presenting contextualist-semantic representations of temporal reference, using the theory of Default Semantics.

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Author(s): B.N. Patnaik

Keywords: It may be worth noting that over the years, due attention has not been paid to the teaching of linguistics in our country and to the societal attitude towards this discipline, which is one of indifference. This article makes observations, in a rather general way, on the linguistics curriculum in our universities at the Masters level and suggests that changes are in order and it offers some implementable suggestions in this regard. It also deals briefly with the need to sensitize the society about the intellectual appeal and the social relevance of this discipline.

Abstract: teaching of linguistics in India, linguistics curriculum at the Masters level, structure-oriented curriculum, need for change, language use, ancient Indian linguistics, people’s perception about linguistics.

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Author(s): Reetom Borkotoky and Gautam K. Borah

Keywords: Motion events, path, path types, Assamese, source-path-goal schema, constructions, two-dimensional geometrical model

Abstract: This paper is a study of the semantics and grammar of the types of paths to be found in Assamese, an Indo-Aryan language of India. A motion event is a fundamental human experience and such an event has a path as an essential part of it. In John went to Delhi,we have thus a path which overtly encodes a goal to be reached, but John fell from the tree,we have a path that encodes the source of the motion event. On the other hand, grammar may not allow a path that encodes only the source. Hence the ungrammaticality of *John went from Guwahati. The types of paths in Assamese will be identified using Pantcheva’s (2011) typology of paths to be found in world languages. Furthermore, the path types in Assamese will be represented using Croft (2012) two-dimensional geometrical model. Thus, we will draw insights from Cognitive Linguistics in our analysis. The data used in the paper primarily comes from the authors themselves, who happen to be native speakers of Assamese.

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Author(s): Rashid Guleed

Keywords: Somali, mother language,word construction,interpretation, multiplemeanings

Abstract: Many scholars have dedicated their lives to studying language origins, attempting to determine the mother of all languages. Their efforts were misdirected and lacked the widelya Accepted theory that humans originated in Africa,thus preventing their success.Instead, this paper illustrates the Somali language through the eyes of the blessed ancestor swhocreat edit, emphasizing their profound knowledge and systematic methodology employed in constructing Somali words,based on the study findings.Ital so presents some of the unique linguistic characteristics of the Somali language and demonstrates the origins of Somali and its implication for language theories and origins.In the study of language and language genes is,this paper sugues that the Somali language is Prophet Adam's language and the origin of language that has survived by the grace of God. The Somali language possesses many distinctive characteristics that have great potential for historical and scientific investigation. It serves as a valuable resource for understanding the origins of language and provides insights into word construction and the nature of language origin.It provides convincing evidence that our words serve as records of human prehistory and that language is the first significant blessing of our Lord upon Adam,the ancestor of mankind as a communication tool to receive God's directives.

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Author(s): Shabana Hameed and Mehvish Mohsin

Keywords: CSL, Lucknow Urdu, phonological skewing, orienting principles, syntagmatic usage

Abstract: The present paper is a phonological analysis of a variety of Urdu spoken in and around Lucknow, based on the theoretical principles of Columbia School of Linguistics (CSL). CSL encompasses a radically functional, explanatory and aprioristic approach to linguistic analysis, be it phonology or grammar. The phonological analysis presented here tries to explain certain phonological skewings in monosyllabic words with a view to explaining ‘why they take the shape that they do’. To exemplify, what motivates the preference for apical stops and fricatives over the other stop types- the dorsals, medials or post dorsals, or why sounds articulated with fewer number of articulators are preferred over those that employ greater number of articulators, etc. The abovementioned observable phenomena will be analysed in terms of their syntagmatic usage in Lucknow Urdu. The five orienting principles, namely, physiological mechanism, human behaviour, communication, acoustic medium and vision, that form an integral part of phonological theory within the CS framework will become instrumental in providing justifications and explanations for the non-random distribution of the observed phenomena in Lucknow Urdu.

Author(s): Sadia H. Hasan

Keywords: transformations, deep structure, surface structure, transitive and intransitive

Abstract: Passive sentences are very much a part of any natural language. Chomsky (1965), in his analysis of syntactic structures, claims that certain meaning-preserving transformations which relate different surface structures to a common deep structure are a necessary part of any speaker’s linguistic competence. English language has active constructions like “John ate the apple” and the passive counterpart “The apple was eaten by John” and they have the same deep structure representation.

How ever the situation of passive voice in Urdu is not as clear as in English. Passive sentences in Urdu share idiosyncratic verbal morphology,and case marking of the agent phrase “If there is a passive transformation in Urdu/Hindi, it does not reorder constituents as part of its operation”(Davison: 1982). It does not promote an object to subject by changing its case marking, since objects in passive sentences may retain the dative-accusative post-position -koo which normally marks specific or animate objects.

In terms of Transitive and Intransitive verbs Urdu has two types of passive sentences: viz

1. An intransitive verb with a passive meaning

/gh?rdhulrhah?/ – “The house is being washed”

2. The corresponding transitive verb in a passive construction:

/ gh?rdhoyajarhah?/– “The house is being washed”

These two kinds of sentences are very similar, but there is a trivial difference. Intransitive verbs with passive meanings express an action with no reference to any actor, whereas passive verbs imply that some unspecified agent performs the action of the verb. This paper investigates the perception of passive constructions in Urdu speaking children.

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Author(s): Jitendra Vasava and Nishaant Choksi

Keywords: bird-names, Noiri Bhili, avian behavior, bird language

Abstract:
Traditional linguistic analyses are primarily concerned with human language. However indigenous communities also have elaborate linguistic structures to describe the world of non-humans. In this paper we take up the discussion of the morphology, semantics and cultural semiotics of bird-names and bird-language in Noiri Bhili, an Adivasi group living on the banks of the Narmada River in Maharashtra and Gujarat. The study describes 19 birds, their names, and how their calls are understood to convey information to human speaker. This is done through the use of several grammatical resources, including expressives as well as the indexing of avian behavior with human activity through denotation. We suggest that attention to such animal names and ‘animal-language’ within the grammar of human languages provide important insights into the relation of linguistic form with cultural worldviews.

Author(s): Nazrin B. Laskar

Keywords: This paper discusses the morpho-syntactic features of the nominal categories in Bishnupriya Manipuri, a contact language spoken in small pockets in the north-eastern part of India. Bishnupriya Manipuri originated owing to contact between Eastern Indo-Aryan (Sylheti, Assamese) and Tibeto-Burman (Meitei) languages in Manipur. Thus the roots of Bishnupriya Manipuri can be traced to multiple languages belonging to both Eastern Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman. Through an analysis of large corpus of natural data, an attempt is made in this paper to examine the morpho-syntactic properties of nominals in Bishnupriya Manipuri as a contact language. The aim of this study is to understand the grammar of the nominal categories in Bishnupriya Manipuri and delimit its position vis avis the languages that contributed to the formation of Bishnupriya Manipuri.

Abstract: language contact, Bishnupriya Manipuri,morpho-syntax, nominal categories

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Author(s): Noman Tahir and M J Warsi

Keywords: Kakrala-Urdu, agreement, pronoun, case marking, auxiliaries

Abstract: This paper presents a brief description of Morpho-syntactic differences between Kakrala-Urdu and Urdu. Kakrala-Urdu, a distinct linguistic variety spoken in Kakrala, Uttar Pradesh, represents a unique blend of features that set it apart from standard Urdu and neighbouring languages such as Braj-Bhasha and Khadi-Boli. This study examines the pronoun system, agreement patterns, case marking, and auxiliary usage in Kakrala-Urdu, highlighting its divergence from standard Urdu. Notably, it employs gender-specific pronouns like /ba/ for 'she' and /bu/ for 'he,' unlike the gender-neutral /wo/ in standard Urdu. The agreement system features default patterns in the present tense with habitual aspects, where verbs and auxiliaries remain invariant regardless of gender, contrasting sharply with standard Urdu's gender-specific inflections. Additionally, auxiliary usage in Kakrala-Urdu reveals tense-specific variations distinct from standard forms. These findings underscore Kakrala-Urdu’s resilience in maintaining unique linguistic traits while coexisting with surrounding languages. This study contributes to the understanding of regional linguistic variation and enriches the broader discourse on dialectology and language change in South Asia.

Author(s): Kothakonda Suman

Keywords: null subjects, Tulu, tense, agreement, root clause

Abstract:
This is an attempt to examine whether Tulu allows null subjects or not. The null subject parameter tries to provide a unified analysis for omitting or not omitting the subjects in the clauses. In some languages, the presence of subject in a clause is obligatory and in some others it is optional. In this way, world languages can be classified as null subject languages and non-null subject languages. In some languages, the analysis of null subjects is not straightforward. Tulu is one such language and there is hardly any work done on this topic specifically on this language. Tulu is one of the Dravidian languages which is widely spoken in some parts of Karnataka and Kerala. Tulu has neither written literature nor script of its own. In this paper, we discuss how Tulu licenses several null subjects in the root clause.This paper tries to investigate the properties of Tulu null subjects in relation to the verbal morphology and also finds out where Tulu language falls in among the four types of null subject languages; consistent, expletive, discourse and partial.

Author(s): Vibha Sharma

Keywords: Urdu, nationhood, colonial agenda, linguistic politics, world literature

Abstract:This paper explores the colonial imposition of nationhood, focusing on the linguistic and cultural ramifications for the Urdu language in partitioned India. Delving into Urdu's evolution, this study examines its politicization and marginalization post-Partition, juxtaposing its resilience against the homogenizing tendencies of nationalism and globalization. The discussion foregrounds Urdu's unique status as a nation-less language, its rich literary tradition, and its role in challenging monolithic national and global paradigms, advocating for an inclusive approach to world literature that transcends colonial and nationalistic constraints.

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Author(s): Murad Khan

Keywords: foreign language education, teaching Spanish, linguistic diversity, India

Abstract: The rise of global interconnectedness has significantly transformed the educational landscape worldwide, especially in multilingual countries like India. As foreign language education gains momentum, addressing the structural and linguistic diversity inherent in both the students' native languages and the target language is increasingly vital. Teaching Spanish in India presents unique challenges and opportunities, as it involves bridging two distinct linguistic worlds. Due to higher competition, acquiring knowledge of global languages has become very important. English, being an international language, has played a crucial role in the evolution of our nation globally. Unfortunately, studying a foreign language is not available to most students because the network of public universities, schools, and colleges does not cover the entire national territory, making itdifficult for the students to connect with them. This article explores the intricacies of teaching Spanish in India, where linguistic diversity is high, and delves into strategies to address structural diversity in language instruction, aiming to create effective learning environments.

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